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Here's a quick overview of some common Orbiter components and their uses.
Market: This is where you purchase blueprints for weapons and some frames; it will also tell you the blueprint drop location if not purchasable from here. You can also make all plat-based purchases in the Market, for equipment, cosmetics, and more! Be sure to take a look and see all the different things you can build or buy in the future.
Codex: This is where you look at details regarding quests, enemies, items, and much more. If you need in-game information about something, you can probably find it here. Many quests are started from the Codex as well, so be sure to check back after major updates to see if there's a new one waiting for you!
Syndicate Console: This console is where you interact with the 6 main syndicates (outside of a relay) to get rewards from your standing, initiate, and much more. It also tells you the stats of the other universal syndicates (Simaris, Solaris United, Cetus, etc.), and will let you fast travel to them.
Navigation: Your main hub for starting missions and exploring the Star Chart! Blinking blue nodes indicate you have not completed them yet, and some are locked requiring previous mission completion to be playable. Planets are connected via Junctions, which require certain tasks to be completed to unlock and fight a Tenno Specter to proceed to that next planet. Read them carefully, as their title and description indicate everything you need to proceed!
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Mod Station: Upgrade your acquired mods here, or transmute them to make brand new ones. Additionally, you can sort your mods by a multitude of ways, including by most recent if you get confused on what you just picked up a while back. You can also dissolve them for Endo or sell for Credits, depending on what you might need. It's recommended to keep at least 2 or 3 of every mod though, for build variety later on; Mods are invaluable, and a good build with them can be the difference between winning or losing a fight!
Foundry: This is where you build all the blueprints you have acquired; each blueprint will have a list of requirements, which may have their own blueprints to craft as well. Pay careful attention to the resources necessary, and try to get them ahead of time since everything built here generally has a time delay (12h, 24h, 3d craft times).